Action Spaces: The ability of some states via distance, isolation, topography,
or certain regional balances to remain unaffected by and independent from other
states’ actions. American countries tend to enjoy this security from eurasian threats,
as do the southern and peripheral world regions, such as sub-Saharan Africa, South
Asia, and the Southern Pacific. The Cold War rivalry between the United States and
the Soviet Union reduced action spaces because of their ubiquitous competition.
But the US, as later unipolar hegemon, created a tendency for expansion of such
autonomous spaces caused by the ending of the earlier strategic rivalry with Russia.
Countries positioned more centrally, for instance, such as Germany and Poland,
suffered more than average interventions from neighbors, thus experiencing di-
minished action spaces. Switzerland, Venezuela, and Australia/New Zealand expe-
rienced the opposite.
American Isolationism: Unique within a strategic platform, the United States
can better exert pivotal influence by its offshore balancing, an ability to place its
naval strength at either extreme of eurasia and then siding for or against certain
regional rivals and allies to its advantage. The isolation and distance of America en-
hances its aligning with nations for overseas’ regional balances without their fear of
territorial absorption by the United States. North American isolation allows it pro-
tection from eurasian dangers and involvements, and from threatening American
neighbors, thus awarding a focus upon its sea-power capacities without the need
for more expensive and politically vulnerable land-power facilities. Within this iso-
lation as well, the American could capture the wealth of his continent during past
centuries without serious opposition and to dominate Middle America according
to the Monroe Doctrine.
Asymmetric States: in Saul Cohen’s terminology, these countries are “sec-
ond-order powers” that challenge a status quo by disrupting “the regional [leading
states] to rethink long-held positions and, in effect, to open their systems more
widely.” Castro’s Cuba ranks as a prominent example; perhaps iran and North Ko-
rea do as well. “While these regionally destabilizing states may well exhaust their
own energies, the perturbations [instabilities] caused by them play a useful role in
forgoing more cohesive regional structures.” 1 Consequently, the outcome of these
states opposing the regional leaders assists toward rebalancing an unstable regional
system, and to Cohen, ultimately these states will come to play a positive role.
Autarky: A state’s ambition for attaining enough resources, protection, and
autonomy to enable self-sufficiency. This is illustrated in pan-regional designs,
longitudinal lines separating the earth into three or four distinct autonomous geo-
graphic zones, sometimes depicted as Oceania, eurasia, and east Asia. One could
surmise this scenario within a more negative Geopolitik of a northern dominance of
southern regions, Africa, latin America, and the Middle east, fulfilling Great Pow-
ers’ needs for industrial and energy resources. likewise, the more extreme maps of
this design could expose a war-prone checkerboard pattern of conflict across the
adjacent zones for each other’s wealth.
it is generally established by most economists that autarky should not be recom-
mended as a modern nation’s policy. Since the earth has distributed its resources
unevenly, international trade replaces the alleged merits of self-sufficiency as a
more effective path to gaining trading markets and necessary resources for national
development and prosperity. enhanced security might arrive in the collective as
well.
Balance of Power: A configuration of regional states composed of varying
numbers, from one to five normally, positioned for equilibrium or disequilibrium
among them depending upon state policies and upon the wider political environ-
ment. The outcomes are thus: unipolar, bipolar, or multipolar, and their arrange-
ments accommodative (more stable) or hostile (more unstable). Most scholars
visualize the classical balance as multipolar and accommodative and as more sta-
ble. yet the present unipolar pattern of the United States as hegemon has proven
peaceful, since it appears to be accommodative to the major Great Powers. in clas-
sical geopolitical terms, security derives more from position than from power, the
alignments of checkerboards a prominent instance.
Balancer States; Bandwagoning and Balancing: Balancers locate either as pe-
ripheral-within-regions or outside-of-region states, not intertwined within major
power alliances and thus able to bandwagon or align with a dominant side of a re-
gional balance or balance against a dominant side, evening the power distributions
within the region. Traditionally, england played this role within european balances,
and presently the United States follows with its offshore balancing strategy. Despite
its relative weakness, the central positioning of Paraguay between its larger neigh-
bors, Brazil and Argentina, has seen these sorts of balances in its recent history.
Borders-Cause-Wars Thesis: here, a statistically proven association arises be-
tween number of international frontiers of states and their number of war involve-
ments—or, the more borders, the more wars. The association was shown for South
America and the same globally. 4 This rather common sense connection rises statis-
tically with countries having more populated borders, 5 and with states possessing
never-resolved territorial disputes.
Bridge Countries; Gateway States and Regions: Areas and states that attract
outside entry into and through them into more expansive regions and continents
in the interests of security, investments, and energy-industrial resources. Brzezinski
saw Western europe as “America’s essential geopolitical bridgehead on the eurasian
continent,” 2 and Cohen visualized these areas as financial and trade centers.
Buffer States: Smaller and weaker countries positioned between/among larger
neighbors such that direct contact, and thus possible warfare among the larger ad-
jacent states, are likely avoided. in most cases, as in South America, these buffers
stabilize regions by cushioning conflict among the larger powers and by absorbing
territorial losses to the benefit of the more powerful. Middle America tends to iso-
late the Southern from the Northern hemisphere similarly.
Camino del Sol: A geopolitical reference to the isolation of South America
from the northern Great Powers, 7 and hence to an alleged world dominance of the
Northern hemisphere. The farther a country from a latitudinal line connecting the
major northern capital cities—Washington, DC, london, Paris, Moscow, Beijing,
and Tokyo—the less global impact that state possesses. A similar picture arises in
the equatorial paradox, which posits a 70 percent likelihood that the level of devel-
opment of a nation will correspond to its distance from either north or south of the
equator. explanations for this tendency extend from tropical diseases hampering
human energies to the tropics providing easy foodstuffs without need for innova-
tion and hard work that would be required of the challenges of colder and harsher
northern climes.
These references parallel henry Kissinger’s pentagonal thesis, which numbers
a global power monopoly of only the five major power centers of the north that
“count.” Also within this mix, a condominium concept resembles these five Great
Powers of the north controlling major international events of importance. Some
evidence exists that the world’s more productive temperate landforms, the areas
historically spawning the leading civilizations, happen more plentifully in the north
than in the south, where in the latter case, such zones extend mostly over ocean
waters and the smaller fertile landforms that are scattered and isolated.
Cataclysmic Events: This thesis resides at the one extreme between environ-
mental determinism and possibilism, the former of these being events within
nature that directly and immediately impact upon a country’s political and gov-
ernmental behavior—earthquakes, tsunamis, volcanoes, global warming, polluted
water and air spaces, pandemics, and scarcities of oil, water, land, and other en-
ergy and human/industrial resources. Some political scandals and popular upris-
ings have followed earthquakes and tsunamis in Nicaragua, 1972, and in Japan,
2011. Cataclysmic events occur so devastatingly that they determine political out-
comes.
Challenge and Response: humans facing and overcoming difficult terrain,
climate, and other harsh conditions—these representing, for instance, dangerous
jungle environments and rugged mountain ranges when confronted by migrat-
ing peoples. American exceptionalism might pose a further example, its success
in transforming a wilderness into a rich continent, or manifest destiny, its alleged
inherent right and duty to do so despite the daunting challenge.
Checkerboards: A leapfrog configuration of states within a region whereby
neighboring states appear as enemies but neighbors of neighbors farther out figure
as allies. This mandala patterning can be found in contemporary South America,
instilling a stable structure to the continent. For the ancient Greek Peloponnesian
war, its checkerboard was rigid and war-prone, 8 creating a setting for thirty years
of destruction. Thus, geopolitical patterns can differ within these structures, the
outcomes being either stable or not. Checkerboards occur elsewhere in the Middle
east, Middle America, and Southeast Asia.
Choke Points: Pivotal land and sea corridors show as choke points, these be-
ing straits, passages, canals, channels, and river estuaries whose positions exert im-
pact over an extended distance beyond their immediate locations. Good examples
would include the Straits of Malacca and of Gibraltar, the Panama and Suez canals,
New Orleans and the Mississippi River estuary. Countries compete for control over
such points.
Clash of Civilizations: huntington and others have asserted that previous
ideological and nationalistic competitions among nations and blocs of the Cold
War have shifted onto different social and cultural dimensions of conflict. 9 Now,
rival “civilizations” struggle in armed strife. Wars will be fought in march lands
or frontiers that separate the various civilizations, particularly in borders showing
contemporary hostility—the Muslim, Chinese, and Western lands. huntington be-
lieved that the cultural centers themselves would remain united and not engage in
civil warfare.
Climatology Theory: A link is fixed between climatic conditions and human
and political behavior, perhaps the most prominent example the alleged vigor and
health of temperate climates in contrast to the lethargy and stagnation alleged of
tropical and polar zones. Another example comes in the connection between lower
rainfall prompting migration, depression, chaos, and stagnation. Some evidence
derives from the climatic disruptions of global warming in which inconsistent
weather may contribute to conflict. Finally, it is possible that favorable climates
assisted the industrial rise of europe and North America after the “little ice Age,”
giving rise to domination over Asia and Africa.
Closed Spaces: At the nineteenth century’s end, a concern was raised by sev-
eral writers, halford Mackinder and Frederick Jackson Turner among these, of the
disappearance of lands for colonization and development, thus creating a scarcity
causing national rivalries and wars. Such a scenario extends today to overpopula-
tion, diminished lands for food production, exhaustion of sustainable resources,
and other such factors within the environmental context. The law of valuable areas
represents a variation of the closed spaces in which available resources and agricul-
tural lands lie open to potential colonization but primarily those located in isolated
and difficult-to-exploit spaces. A similar prediction of Great Power warfare accom-
panies this law, a likely example being for petroleum resting in Central Asia.
Contagion: A diffusion phenomenon exhibiting the spread of riots, rebellion,
democracy, military dictatorships, and other instances across international fron-
tiers. This “demonstration effect” tends toward a higher likelihood in centrally po-
sitioned countries within regions. The “falling dominoes” example, sans its ideo-
logical taint, represents another instance of contagion.
Containment Policy: The source for this strategy originated in George Ken-
nan’s warning of likely Soviet expansion over eurasia and onto its rimlands, this
threat adhering to Mackinder’s heartland thesis. The general assumption held that
the Soviet Union, either for nationalistic or ideological reasons, sought to extend
its territories to the whole of eurasia and beyond, perhaps bent upon world dom-
ination. hence, to turn back this threat of a united and hostile Russia, eurasia, the
United States, and its allies must erect “rimland dykes” along the continent’s pe-
riphery to contain the Russian expansion in the hope that once the allied success in
halting the advance occurs, Russia’s recognition of its being contained would either
mellow into seeking a status quo or instead the empire would collapse as a result of
the costs and stresses of its failed seeking of new lands. Violence could develop in
this latter case with global war following a Soviet collapse.
Convergence Theory: A possible pre-shatterbelt condition visualized by Cohen
in areas centrally positioned between the interests of outside but often adjacent
Great Powers. 10 These zones could show either as gateway or shatterbelt patterns.
Perhaps pre–World War ii Poland might qualify, and contemporary iraq before the
US occupation.
Demography: A spatial characteristic of distributions and densities of peoples
over lands and resources that exert a political, economic, or other impact, such as
under- or overpopulation upon places on the earth. excessive human congestion in
southern megacities could foster failed states, and from these would spread beyond
themselves to adjacent areas such problems as crime, migrations, poverty, disease,
political violence, and other such disruptions.
Dependency: A core-periphery regional and global structure featuring the
technologically advanced and thus wealthy and powerful core countries and re-
gions dominant over an outer rim of weak, poor, and dependent countries. A mal-
distribution of natural resources accompanies this pattern, the rich areas more am-
ply endowed in resources than the poor areas. A further claim arrives in that those
in poverty are kept in plight within a colonial or neocapitalist pattern, the powerful
becoming wealthier at the expense of the poor.
Distance-Weakens Argument: The claim that closer lines of communication
will lend certain advantages of nearness—lower costs of transport and travel, co-
operative security interests, assembling of influence spheres and key nations, and
accomplishment of regional integration. Disadvantages accrue with distance, al-
though some argue against these claims, asserting that modern technologies of
communications negate the disadvantages of distance. Despite such technologies,
many affirm that this traditional thesis of distance weakening still pertains in the
majority of cases.
Earth Dependence/Emancipation: in the instance of earth dependence, man es-
sentially is limited in his capacities by nature, with few exceptions. Not able to escape
the fetters of his environment, he is “nature limited.” Nonetheless, in the more liberal
instance of emancipation, humans hold greater capacity for freedom, given this by
science and human ingenuity, which will remove many of nature’s constraints. Such
a dichotomy can be visualized in states as well as in humans, states being either at the
mercy of difficult regional and spatial limitations or able to achieve gains from their
own skills and flexibility that would lend them more freedom.
Encirclement: Of course, all countries encircle and are encircled, a premise cen-
tral to classical geopolitics. What one studies within the phenomenon of encircle-
ment are the supposed advantages and disadvantages of this positioning. locating
on the periphery might award some protection yet deprive the resident of impact
within the region. Other factors on either side of this discussion have been outlined
elsewhere in this volume. This term can exude a balancing phenomenon and even
hostile intent, in which certain nations might seek protection and power with alli-
ance to an outside power. Or they could align with others against a more dominant
regional nation. Brazil being encircled by the Spanish republics offers an example,
Brazil’s neighbors having been successful in denying it access to the Pacific and to a
permanent seat on the UN Security Council. The United States, in its capacity as an
offshore balancer, exhibits another instance of its involvement in the regional bal-
ances on either eurasian fringe, encircling China or Russia in preventing any sort of
aggressive intentions. North America can limit its encirclement by eurasia by itself
encircling the continent’s rimland expanses.
Environmental Determinism/Possibilism: We might want to avoid the charge
of geopolitics being “deterministic,” a claim that holds some justification. yet the
query must be considered: how dominating to ourselves and county is our physi-
cal environment—excessively or selectively? here, we see an evolution of thought
and controversy in this theory’s divide, evolving from an inevitable causality of
earlier writers to the contemporary acceptance of a “possible” or “conditioning”
effect toward humans and states toward their spatial surroundings. Accordingly, we
presently hold a common acceptance for countries’ settings impacting upon their
international actions and policies in certain instances. We can do no more to clarify
this attachment. Nonetheless, let us refrain from asserting a strict “determinism”
and instead stay with the environment as possible “conditioner.”
Falling-Dominoes Thesis: The more popular and notorious depiction of this
thesis attaches to the spread of communism, one state succumbing to socialism
and this “disease” or “flood” then advancing onto neighboring states being tainted
similarly, such countries “falling [like] dominoes.” hence, this unproven ideological
premise takes this dominoes assumption out of the realm of classical geopolitics.
Still, examples of a contagion effect happening among contiguous countries occur
within nonideological descriptions of this phenomenon, such as political instabil-
ity, economic depression, democracy, riots, and the like. 11 Accordingly, when the
concept of falling dominoes or sequential happenings may occur among neighbor-
ing countries, in these instances we can accept the theory of dominoes falling as
tied to contagion, and thus, it will be given a place within the geopolitical model.
Two additional theories could stick to falling dominoes, both being expansive to
the dominoes question above. A field-theory structure broadens the original thesis
by adding types of borders, comparative population levels, historical and cultural
rivalries among the adjacent players, and so forth. here, the additional variables
add more depth beyond the mere one-dimensional frontiers. Additionally, a modi-
fied-linkage model serves much the same purpose, replacing national borders with
connected functional nodes that erase political lines, these being multinational
metropolitan and trade networks, traffic routes, and like regional extensions.
Fluvial Laws: Spatial patterns of rivers and seas would pertain to an assortment
of theses: interior land-locked countries inherently striving for an ocean outlet;
centripetally flowing rivers unifying countries; states dominating single river water-
sheds; countries competing for river estuaries; states controlling estuaries tending
to dominate the immediate coastlines; and directions of countries’ rivers determin-
ing the regional directions of their foreign policies.
Frontier Thesis: The argument advanced by historian Frederick Jackson Turner
that the unique North American wilderness and its frontier, with colonists moving
westward, helped form America democracy and such other traits as equalitarian-
ism, individualism, distrust for authority, violence, and less interest toward artistic
and scientific achievements. The earlier settlers encountered environmental chal-
lenges in overcoming the wilderness and developing its uncultivated lands. his the-
sis prompted a variety of offshoots, such as manifest destiny, Monroe Doctrine,
exceptionalism, isolationism, and resistance to immigrant and racial diversity.
Geostrategies: Policies designed and implemented by successful statespersons
that gained their countries’ vital resources and trade routes, protected frontiers,
national unity, and other pertinent geopolitical needs of their states.
Great Game: This idea originated in the nineteenth-century rivalry between
imperial Russia and Great Britain for Afghanistan and to a lesser extent for Tibet
and surrounding areas. Several later authors revived the Great Game, including
Brzezinski and Megoran, 12 with Admiral Mahan predicting a land-power/sea-
power confrontation over a “Middle Strip” within Central Asia also resembling this
rivalry.
Heartland Thesis: Mackinder’s 1904 address outlining his heartland thesis be-
gan the Anglo–North American version of traditional geopolitics, the emphasis
upon the internal lands of central eurasia and its strategic inward pivot. Central
position afforded several advantages: (1) protection from invasion resulting from
isolation, longer distances, harsh weather and topography, and great expanse of
territory; (2) maneuverability within and beyond a central pivot; (3) access to con-
tinental resources; and (4) ability to probe vulnerabilities of the outer ring of coun-
tries and of the maritime bases of the rimland. Mackinder’s eurasian heartland
thesis stands as the leading geopolitical concept, one that alleges world domination
would reward the heartland’s possessor. The Charcas heartland of Bolivia in South
America is recognized within the literature, too.
Hydraulic Despotism: Related to fluvial laws, several ancient empires of despo-
tism formed because of rulers’ control of irrigation systems in climates of drought.
This premise rests on elite castes’ dominance over flood control and water that
brought them ownership of adjacent lands and peoples. yet in contemporary times,
we may be returning to this image of political rivalry for scarce water, lands, and
resources by elites and their corporations.
Immigration: The movement of peoples over spaces that eventually impact
upon local cultures and governments as well as upon foreign policies. examples
would cover later political and economic fragmentation within lands hosting new
immigrants, as with contemporary europe and with illegal migration across bor-
ders where workers seek better employment opportunities but create other dislo-
cations associated with their movement. european colonization of North America
probably lent to foreign policy the ideals of exceptionalism, manifest destiny, im-
ages of racism, and attitudes of unilateralism.
Imperial Thesis: All empires expand, almost by definition, and such expansion
carries advantages and disadvantages. expansion brings security and wealth—se-
curity in distance frontiers and in isolation from enemy countries; wealth in the
resources the imperial state can access in the newly gained territories. yet empires
must face problems of encirclement by suspicious neighboring countries alarmed
at the expansion. Absorbing alien peoples in newly gained territories could stimu-
late rebellion against the center. in addition, imperial states must bear the costs of
expansion and encirclement, all of these liabilities forcing an eventual contraction
of space away from the periphery to the original core and toward imperial disinte-
gration.
Integration/Globalization: integration erases national commercial boundaries
and political sovereignties as ways to broaden regional markets by eliminating tar-
iffs and by coordinating policies, the best example being the european Union. Glo-
balization reflects the advancement of communications such that distant peoples
and countries come closer via the new electronic technologies.
Intermarium: Similar to a buffering configuration, “the [european] coun-
tries from the Baltic to the Black seas have a common interest in limiting Russian
power and the geopolitical position to do so if they act as a group.” 14 But, for energy
sources, Turkey is reluctant to alienate Russia by joining this buffer configuration.
No decision has been made to date.
Irredentism: Advocating annexation or combining of territories as a plan for
uniting long-separated peoples of common ethnicity or of past national identity
into forming new states or into joining adjacent existing states. The Kurds in iraq,
iran, Syria, and Turkey, desiring a unified homeland, are one example, others being
the Zionist claims for israel and the Aztlan of Chicanos for the American South-
west. The contemporary Ukrainian shatterbelt offers an example as well.
Key Nation Thesis: An alleged tactic of the Nixon foreign policy whereby cer-
tain strategically positioned states in outlying regions would receive US assistance
meant for them to stabilize such areas that would also forward US interests. ex-
amples include Brazil, iran, and Nigeria. “Using subordinate regional powers as
surrogates, exchanging their willingness to incur risks from a major power opposed
to the US for substantial benefits. These [benefits] range from strategic guarantees
and support against smaller neighbors to trade advantages and technology trans-
fers. The recovery of West Germany and Japan during the Cold War are classic ex-
amples of this.”
Land-Locked Countries: Those being continentally interior nations without
extensive seacoasts, such states normally suffer isolation, less economic and po-
litical development, and weaker international involvement and recognition than
coastal ecumenes would enjoy. For some, gaining a sea outlet would appear prom-
inently in their foreign-policy goals. Paraguay maintains some ocean contact from
the Paraguay River and from overland-transit agreements with Brazil. Traditionally,
Russia and Bolivia have sought an ocean outlet as well.
Linchpin States: A concept tied both to shatterbelts, containment, and the eur-
asian rimlands, these states possess locations of strategic value between the margins
of potential Soviet expansion and of Western resistance to that expansion. exam-
ples include Poland, Germany, iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan, South Korea, and the
Philippines.
Linkage Thesis: Kissinger’s assertion that Third World instabilities and an-
ti-Westernism were connected to Soviet intrigue. To break this linkage, the West
would offer rewards to the Russians to reverse such actions, the West affording re-
laxation of tensions, exchanges of trade and technology, and cooperation within
international organizations.
Lintel States: like buffer states, a single state positioned between two larger
countries that stabilizes the surrounding area, like a doorway or window lintel
placed above the arch. The two larger countries are poised against each other, as
neither can dominate or absorb the lintel state. As in the case of Paraguay juxta-
posed astride Brazil and Argentina, it may play a balancing or bandwagoning for-
eign policy toward its two larger neighbors that may stabilize the entire region.
Manifest Destiny: A space concept within geopolitics when shorn of its nation-
alistic and religious connotations, the term refers to the inevitability of a country
occupying outlying territorial spaces. Such an expansion often manifests as a right
or obligation to civilize and develop the new lands. This factor is seen in both Bra-
zilian and US manifestos to spread westward, only the United States being success-
ful. The nineteenth-century attempts to exploit the rubber lands of the Congo and
of Brazil by european nations parallel this description.
Monroe Doctrine: President James Monroe’s original address that sought to
prevent european bases and strategic influence in Middle America, a goal that
would work against the formation of shatterbelts in the region. Also a part of the
containment policy of the Cold War, violated in 1962 during the Cuban missile
crisis when the Soviet Union placed nuclear-armed missiles in Cuba. The doctrine
could later be extended to the eurasian rimlands, the American objective being
offshore balancing against a possible hostile eurasia.
Natural Borders: Frontiers formed by rivers, oceans, mountains, and deserts
that denote march borderlands, although river watersheds tend to unify as well
as to divide state boundaries. This clarity of natural demarcations attracts fewer
territorial disputes among neighbors and therefore brings more regional stability.
Harmonic and equilibrium frontiers show similar tendencies, with the latter being
the outer limits of expanding empires or the farthest points their natural power can
take them.
Natural Resources: Abundant resources possessed by countries bolster their
national prosperity and international impact. Fortunately for some and not so for
others, the earth’s riches are not evenly distributed, North America perhaps being
the most provisioned with such wealth. The dependency thesis would reflect this
scenario as well, the core areas wealthy because of their abundant inheritance of
natural riches. The petro-politics dilemma poses a different and negative view of
such wealth. Future wars could well be fought over resource competition when en-
ergy and other wealth become depleted.
Normative and Alternative Geopolitical Processes: Two alternating geopoliti-
cal processes, the “normative” in which the successful expansion of a universal or
hegemonic state would come to extend domination beyond its immediate regions
such as to place adjacent areas under some level of subservience. Such Great Powers
control their cores and peripheries to the extent that lesser states accept their stan-
dard of domination. After these empires falter, the smaller countries will attempt
to resume their autonomy by constructing regional associations that will protect
their newly gained independence. The Cold War resembled the first process; the
contemporary european Union the second. 16 The imperial thesis and action spaces
resemble this depiction as well.
Ocean Cycles; Age of the Pacific; Westward Movement of Civilizations: Cer-
tain centrally located rivers, seas, and oceans have ed the rise of civilizations in the
ancient Middle east, the Nile, euphrates-Tigris river ways, and elsewhere in the
Aegean and Mediterranean seas, the North Atlantic, and more recently, the Pacific
Ocean Rim. These bodies of water appear to favor maritime nations, placing such
waterways as pivotal to success in broadening countries’ impact and prosperity
and toward their utilizing many of the advantages of central position in regions
and continents. Some find in the contemporary Age of the Pacific a prediction of
this basin as the coming world focus of importance, power, and conflict. Finally,
the thesis forms that major world civilizations have moved westward, from Greece
through Rome and Britain, onto North America, and perhaps to the Pacific era and
China. Somewhat europe-centric and mentioned by Mackinder, 17 these civiliza-
tions drew strength from sea and oceanic features nearby, the Mediterranean, the
North Atlantic, and later, the Pacific.
Offshore Balancing: An alternative Grand Strategy of the United States, a shift
away from Cold War preponderance, suggesting these changes: the United States
should (1) retrench from commitments to Japan and Germany and allow these
countries’ rise to Great Power status. Resist intervening in peripheral areas meant
to enhance Japanese and German stability. No longer oppose the rise of such sta-
tus for China. Accept an eventual shift from a unipolar to a multipolar world; (2)
forsake the current interdependent trade policies, replacing these with a neomer-
cantilism that will place primary emphasis on protecting US national wealth and
on meeting its current domestic needs; and (3) rely upon the US Navy to assist in
offshore balancing adjacent the eurasian rimlands favorable to American national
interests, particularly in positioning against an expansionist China by aligning with
its encircling Asian rivals.
Organic Borders and States: An earlier German concept whereby states tend
either to expand in territory or to contract spatially, based upon their national
“ages”: youth, maturity, or elderly. Survival would rest with expansion, defeat with
contraction. Borders would broaden or shrink in relation to this dynamic nature,
the outer skins of the state. Manifest destiny approximates this phenomenon, as
well as containment, the imperial and dependency theses, and, more distantly,
Mackinder’s heartland.
Pan-Regions: The thesis of three or four global longitudinal sectors enclosing
regions and continents—Pan-America, Pan-europe, Pan-eurasia, and the Asian
Co-Prosperity Sphere. Common examples are shown in George Orwell’s novel
1984, and in Fascist world maps. Such a structure sought to achieve self-sufficiency
and autonomy for the sequestered sectors, dominated by the northern Great Na-
tions. Checkerboard conflicts might arise within this configuration. Similar pat-
terns of northern power would include condominiums and the key nation aspects.
Petro-Politics: A “resources curse” shown in a nation’s dependence upon ex-
porting oil and gas while yet reaping great wealth. Nonetheless, this will see a de-
cline in civil rights and democracy, causing an inverse statistical association be-
tween resource dependence and individuals’ freedom.
Pivotal Locations and Positional Supremacy: Pivotal locations represent an es-
sential element of traditional geopolitics, a unique placement giving impact further
out from the central leverage. A variety of other concepts reflect this pivot: choke
points, heartlands and rimlands, dependency, ocean cycles, and buffers, among
similar terminology. Positional supremacy offers a similar description, that being a
“key area requisite for world domination.” 18 Such a core area could be a heartland
or rimland or both, outlined by cultural or “functional” factors during historical
periods advantaging a particular state or alliance.
Rimlands: Periphery lands of the eurasian margin astride Mackinder’s heart-
land that would include Western and Southern europe, the Middle east, and
Southeast and east Asia. Mackinder’s and Spykman’s visions differed on their de-
scriptions of this encircling region, the former seeing it as passive, the latter more
active and as essential to global stability as the heartland. Many tend to side with
Spykman, 19 who recognized that both world wars were found in divided rimlands
with either extreme, heartland and outer oceanic margins united against opponents
of the rimland.
Sea Lanes of Communication: Transport paths vital to countries dependent
upon international trade and upon resources they require but must import. A good
example would be Japan. Strategic maritime straits or choke points factor into this
concept, as well as offshore balancing and sea power vs. land power, two perspec-
tives vital to North American interests.
Sea Power–Land Power: Countries exhibiting either a maritime or a continen-
tal emphasis in their geopolitical projections. A maritime nation would reflect a
coastal position with good harbors and an oceanic projection. landward nations
normally lack a sea orientation, being placed internally within continental cores. A
common debate stirs over the favored orientation for national power, with naval
proponents arguing for the benefits of trade and continental proponents for the
weakness of sea powers for vulnerable land bases.
Shape and Size of Countries: A state’s configuration affects its national unity,
territorial security, and economic vitality. The rectangular shape of the United
States, tied together within by internal waterways and passable terrains, facilitates
communications, whereas the irregular shapes of Chile, Brazil, and Canada hinder
unity. in general, circular and rectangular shapes might strengthen unity, whereas
elongated and irregular configurations could be disruptive. A nation’s greater terri-
tory will factor into strength and prosperity, the larger powers tending to be more
active in international relations.
Shatterbelt: A region showing two levels of conflict: (1) a strategic rivalry be-
tween outside Great Nations; and (2) a local conflict among countries of that re-
gion. A shatterbelt arises when strategic competitors and the regional competitors
form opposing alliances within the area. 20 A threat of conflict escalation is common
to these configurations.
Space Consciousness and Space Mastery: Drawn from German and South
American spokesmen (Friedrich Ratzel and Julio londoño londoño), the idea of
space consciousness claims that larger states have appetites for additional space,
particularly if these nations visualize as profitable open and vacant spaces nearby.
Such awareness of additional lands marks success in a survival-of-the-fittest in-
ternational environment. Space mastery posits that states should populate and
develop their peripheral hinterlands so as to prevent absorption of such lands by
aggressive neighbors.
Spheres of Influence: Regions under domination by an outside adjacent or
nearby Great Power, examples being Middle America by the United States and east-
ern europe by Russia during the Cold War. A shatterbelt structure would replace
these influence spheres in that a rival outside competitor would intrude into the
area.
Weapons States: These smaller powers aim to gain in security and prestige by
the acquiring or producing of “weapons of mass destruction,” nuclear, chemical,
and biological.
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