주제별 자료/자원과 경제

지리에서 말하는 경제적 관점의 '남과 북' (Brandt Line)

bus333 2021. 1. 5. 12:45

 

 

 

 

Brandt Line 


The bold line shown on the Peters projection map of the world 
depicted on the front cover of the two Brandt Commission Reports, 
showing the division of the world into the Global South and the Global North.

출처 : International Encyclopedia of Human Geography by Rob Kitchin, Nigel Thrift (2009) 1/총12권 - 348page

 

 

 

 

 

Human Geography by Michael Mercier, William Norton (10th) (2019) Oxford Univ

 

 

 

 

 

Financial Times - 2021.11.03

 

 

 

Financial Times - 2021.11.03

 

 

 

Financial Times - 2021.11.03

 

 

 

Financial Times - 2021.11.03

 

 

 

 

 

Human ingenuity has delivered an integrated global economy, weapons of mass destruction, and threats to the biosphere on which we rely. Yet human nature remains that of an instinctively tribal primate. This contradiction is becoming more important than before, as interdependence deepens and superpower rivalry grows.

This raises a sobering question: is it possible for a divided humanity to provide essential global public goods? Since Xi Jinping, leader of the country with the largest emissions of greenhouse gases, has decided not even to attend COP26 in Glasgow, the answer does not appear encouraging.

The core global public goods are prosperity, peace and protection against planetary disasters, such as climate change or serious pandemics. These goods are interconnected: without peace among great powers, prosperity is at best fragile; and neither peace nor prosperity will last in a world ravaged by environmental catastrophes.

States exist to provide public goods and even so often fail to do so. But no global state exists. Instead, global public goods must be provided by agreement among some 200 sovereign nations, especially competing great powers. This leads to freeriding and disputes over whether planned burden sharing is fair.

After the second world war, global prosperity was underpinned by a patchwork of rules and institutions designed and run by western powers, led by the US. Meanwhile, the Soviet Union chose to stay outside the new system. The rules governing trade were built on the mercantilist principle of reciprocity.

Meanwhile, after the collapse of the Bretton Woods exchange rate regime in 1971, currencies and capital flows were unmanaged. Migration has also been left to decisions by individual states.
Meanwhile, global peace was maintained by a balance of terror between the contending nuclear-armed superpowers. But this did not preclude proxy wars and very dangerous moments, notably the Cuban missile crisis in 1962.

Finally, action on the environment and even pandemics has been limited and ineffective, apart from one great success, the agreement on the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer of 1987. We have now been engaging in discussions of the threat of climate change for three decades: emissions have continued to rise throughout.

Alas, our ability to provide global public goods, modest in the past, is likely to shrink still further as rivalry between the US and China grows. True, China is not promoting a global ideology, as the Soviet Union did. Nevertheless, China and the US are very different countries, one a centralised despotism, the other a crumbling democracy. Unlike the Soviet Union, China has a dynamic market economy highly integrated into the world economy. It is also central in resolving global environmental challenges. Managing the global public goods of prosperity and protection of the planet — in addition, evidently, to peace — cannot be done without China.

So, how might this work, not just over the next few years, but over what is likely to be many decades, possibly generations? The short answer is: with difficulty. The longer answer is: by being ambitiously pragmatic. We need to accept that we share our planet and interact with one another too profoundly to avoid co-operation, however much we may dislike one another. What we must do is define and internalise the fundamental interests that unite us.
What might this mean in practice?

On prosperity, the most important requirement is for every country, especially the superpowers, to define the freedom they need to protect their economic, political and security autonomy, while sticking to the commitments that make their actions predictable.
On peace, the objective must be transparency about each side’s objectives and capabilities, with a view to avoiding military or related surprises. This will require deep engagement between Chinese and western military and civil establishments, across the board.

On protection of the planet, among the most important challenges, it is essential to agree on how to mitigate threats to climate. The outcome of COP26 will provide a compelling indication of whether this is possible. But greater capacity to manage pandemics is also urgent.

We are at a hinge moment in history. 

The old western-dominated economic system is not going to develop into a more ordered global system, as some hoped in the 1990s. Meanwhile, the great challenge of securing peace in a nuclear age remains and the newer challenge of protecting the biosphere is becoming ever more urgent.

We must not abandon attempts at global co-operation. That would be a catastrophe imperilling peace, prosperity and planet. We must focus, instead, on defining and then making workable the minimum co-operation we must now have if humanity is to achieve what we will all need.

This will involve sitting down with one another to establish or renew: first, institutions and practices for promoting prosperity that can offer economic development, debt management, and liberal and predictable trade; second, institutions and practices for protecting peace that will deliver transparency and credible security to all; and, finally, institutions and practices for protecting the planet that will deliver a habitable Earth for us and our fellow creatures.

None of this will be easy. Yet we have reached a point at which the alternative to rising above our limitations is catastrophe. If we are to enjoy peace, to prosper and to protect our planet, we must agree to disagree, while still co-operating.

No reasonable alternative exists.


인간의 독창성은 통합된 세계 경제, 대량 살상 무기, 그리고 우리가 의존하는 생물권에 대한 위협을 전달했다. 그러나 인간의 본성은 본능적으로 부족 영장류의 본성으로 남아있다. 이러한 모순은 상호의존성이 깊어지고 초강대국의 경쟁이 심화되면서 이전보다 더 중요해지고 있다.

이것은 정신을 차리게 하는 질문을 제기한다: 분열된 인류가 필수적인 세계 공공재를 제공하는 것이 가능할까? 온실가스 배출량이 가장 많은 국가 지도자인 시진핑이 글래스고의 COP26에 참석조차 하지 않기로 결정했기 때문에, 그 대답은 고무적인 것 같지 않다.

핵심 글로벌 공공재는 번영, 평화, 그리고 기후 변화나 심각한 전염병과 같은 지구의 재난에 대한 보호이다. 이 상품들은 서로 연결되어 있다. 강대국들 사이의 평화 없이는 번영은 기껏해야 깨지기 쉬우며, 환경 재앙으로 파괴된 세계에서는 평화와 번영도 지속되지 않을 것이다.

국가는 공공재를 제공하기 위해 존재하며 심지어 그렇게 하지 않는 경우도 많다. 그러나 글로벌 상태는 존재하지 않습니다. 대신에, 세계 공공재는 200여 개의 주권 국가들, 특히 경쟁하는 강대국들 사이의 합의에 의해 제공되어야 한다. 이는 자유로움과 계획 부담분담이 공정한지에 대한 논쟁으로 이어진다.

2차 세계대전 이후, 세계 번영은 미국이 주도하는 서구 강대국들이 설계하고 운영하는 일련의 규칙과 제도들에 의해 뒷받침되었다. 한편, 소련은 새로운 체제 밖에 머무르기로 결정했다. 무역을 지배하는 규칙들은 상호주의라는 중상주의 원리에 기초했다.

한편, 1971년 브레튼 우즈 환율 체제가 붕괴된 후, 통화와 자본 흐름은 관리되지 않았다. 이민은 또한 개별 국가의 결정에 맡겨져 왔다.
한편, 세계 평화는 핵 무장 강대국들 사이의 공포의 균형에 의해 유지되었다. 그러나 이것은 대리 전쟁과 매우 위험한 순간들, 특히 1962년의 쿠바 미사일 위기를 배제하지는 못했다.

마지막으로, 환경과 심지어 전염병에 대한 조치는 1987년 오존층을 고갈시키는 물질에 대한 몬트리올 의정서에 대한 합의 외에 제한적이고 비효율적이었다. 우리는 30년 동안 기후 변화의 위협에 대한 논의에 관여해 왔다: 배출은 내내 계속 증가해 왔다.

아아, 과거에는 세계 공공재를 제공할 수 있는 우리의 능력은 미국과 중국 사이의 경쟁이 커짐에 따라 더욱 위축될 것 같다. 사실, 중국은 소련이 그랬던 것처럼 세계적인 이데올로기를 홍보하지 않고 있다. 그럼에도 불구하고 중국과 미국은 매우 다른 나라들로, 한 나라는 중앙집권적 전제주의이고 다른 한 나라는 무너지는 민주주의 국가이다. 소련과 달리 중국은 세계경제에 고도로 통합된 역동적인 시장경제를 가지고 있다. 그것은 또한 지구 환경 문제를 해결하는 데 중심적이다. 지구의 번영과 보호라는 세계적인 공공재를 관리하는 것, 게다가 평화를 위해 하는 일은 중국 없이는 할 수 없다.

그렇다면, 앞으로 몇 년 동안뿐만 아니라 앞으로 수십 년, 어쩌면 몇 세대에 걸쳐 어떻게 작동할 수 있을까요? 답은 간단합니다. 어렵게 말이죠. 더 긴 대답은: 야심차게 실용적이 되는 것이다. 우리는 우리가 아무리 서로를 싫어해도 협력을 피하기 위해 지구를 공유하고 너무 깊이 상호 작용한다는 것을 받아들일 필요가 있다. 우리가 해야 할 일은 우리를 단결시키는 근본적인 이해관계를 정의하고 내면화하는 것이다.
실제로 이것은 무엇을 의미할까요?

번영과 관련하여 가장 중요한 요건은 모든 국가, 특히 강대국들이 그들의 행동을 예측할 수 있게 하는 약속을 지키면서 그들의 경제적, 정치적, 안보적 자율성을 보호하는 데 필요한 자유를 정의하는 것이다.
평화에 있어서 목표는 군사적 또는 이와 관련된 놀라움을 피하기 위한 각 당사자의 목표와 능력에 대한 투명성이어야 한다. 이를 위해서는 전반적으로 중국, 서방 군부 및 민간 기관 간의 깊은 참여가 필요할 것이다.
지구를 보호하기 위해서는, 가장 중요한 과제들 중에서, 기후에 대한 위협을 완화하는 방법에 동의하는 것이 필수적이다. COP26의 결과는 이것이 가능한지 여부에 대한 설득력 있는 암시를 제공할 것이다. 그러나 전염병을 관리할 수 있는 더 큰 능력 또한 시급하다.

우리는 역사의 경첩에 서 있다

일부 사람들이 1990년대에 희망했던 것처럼 서구 지배의 낡은 경제 체제는 더 질서 있는 세계 체제로 발전하지 않을 것이다. 한편, 핵 시대에 평화를 확보해야 한다는 큰 도전은 여전히 남아 있고 생물권을 보호해야 한다는 새로운 도전은 점점 더 시급해지고 있다.

우리는 국제 협력에 대한 시도를 포기해서는 안 된다. 그것은 평화, 번영, 지구를 위태롭게 하는 재앙이 될 것이다. 대신, 우리는 인류가 필요로 하는 것을 성취하기 위해서는 우리가 지금 가져야 할 최소한의 협력을 정의하고 실행 가능하게 만드는 데 초점을 맞추어야 한다.

여기에는 설립 또는 갱신을 위해 서로 협력하는 것이 포함될 것이다. 첫째, 경제 개발, 부채 관리, 자유롭고 예측 가능한 무역을 제공할 수 있는 번영을 촉진하기 위한 제도와 관행, 둘째, 투명성과 신뢰할 수 있는 안보를 모두에게 제공할 수 있는 평화를 보호하기 위한 제도와 관행, 그리고 마지막으로, 우리와 우리의 동료 생물들에게 생명체가 살 수 있는 지구를 제공할 지구를 보호하기 위한 제도와 관행들

이 중 어느 것도 쉽지 않을 것이다. 그러나 우리는 우리의 한계를 넘어서기 위한 대안이 재앙인 지점에 도달했다. 우리가 평화를 누리고, 번영하고, 지구를 보호하려면, 우리는 서로 협력하면서도 동의하지 않는 것에 동의해야 한다.

합리적인 대안이 없습니다.